Dutch Environmental Issues

Sample details Pages: 21 Words: 6160 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Environment Essay Type Descriptive essay Did you like this example? Interactive planning of Dutch infrastructural project A case-description of Mainport Schiphol and the A12 national expressway Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Dutch Environmental Issues | Social Policy" essay for you Create order Interactive Planning of Sustainability 1. Introduction Since the beginning of the 90s, the implementation of new infrastructural projects in The Netherlands became increasingly problematic. Related environmental issues had a lot of societal attention. The Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, responsible for maintaining a high quality of mobility in the Netherlands, identified three major problems with earlier attempts to solve the infrastructural problems; little social acceptance for new projects, procedures for realizing new projects took too long, and the proposed solutions were not really original and often more of the same. For solving these problems, this Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management proposed a change from top-down decision making to a more open and interactive form of policy making for planning, developing, and implementing new infrastructure (Enthoven and de Rooij, 1996). With interactive policy making, the main goal is to make more creative and effective plans, by involving all stakeholders like citizens, (local and/or national) governments and experts. For this paper, 2 cases are selected, related to a Dutch infrastructure issue and dealt with on an interactive way; Mainport Schiphol near Amsterdam and the A12 national expressway near The Hague. The first one is selected because of its elaborated description in Susskind et al. (1999), its high degree of complexness and the fact the outcomes were fairly positive, the second one is selected also because of its suitable description in Glasbergen en Driessen (2005), but with a more straight-forward problem definition and its positive outcomes. Discussing these two Dutch cases, we will focus on four critical issues, related to interactive planning and often discussed in literature: Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge. Although more critical issues can be defined, like Roles op participants, Modes of evaluation and Use of outcomes by policy makers, only these four are chosen because of the fact that these are clearly discussed in the selec ted case-descriptions and these seemed to be crucial for the success of these cases. Chapter 2 will discuss each critical issue shortly. Chapter 3 will discuss the two cases in the light of the four different critical issues, and chapter 4 will give a conclusion. To structure this research the following research question is formulated: How do the four critical issues (Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge) contribute to the rate of success of 2 infrastructural cases in The Netherlands (the Schiphol case and the A12 national expressway)? 2. Critical Issues This chapter will elaborate a bit more about what is actually meant with the four different critical issues: Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge. 2.1 Participant selection The question of which parties to involve is answered by a set of four considerations that should be taken into account when selecting the participants (De Bruijn et al., 2002). Firstly, parties with blocking power in the decision-making are important. Involving these parties in the process may keep them from using their blocking power in ways that are unforeseen. Secondly, parties with productive power should be part of the process. These parties will actually have to implement the decisions that are taken, and can influence the decision making with their control over the productive resources. Thirdly, parties that have an interest in the decision-making should be considered. These are parties that do not have substantial power in the decision making process (like blocking power or resources), but nevertheless are confronted with the outcomes of the group process and therefore can provide important information and moral considerations. Finally, this moral aspect of decision-making ca n by a reason to invite certain parties to join the process. Moral and ethical considerations can be important to embody the voice of those who are affected by the potential decision, but are not invited to the process for different reasons (De Bruin, 2002). 2.2 Power and access One of the key goals of interactive policy making is that it should reduce the influence of dominant elites and enable the less powerful groups to give input. Those parties or actors, who do not have access to formal decision-making processes or who cannot exert enough influence by the way of discussion and negotiation are more likely to initiate legal proceedings. Publics ability to participate in decisions can be assessed according to three elements (as defined at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992): access to information, access to the decision-making process, and access to redress or change decision. These three elements will shortly be explained below. Access to information can be seen as the first foundation of access and also one of the most passive forms of access seen from the perspective of the public. With access to information is meant the ability the public has to easily get access to forms of relevant information in which they are directly or indirectly involved, such as environmental impact assessments, reports from industries about their emissions etc. But one also can think about getting informed about potential relevant activities, which possibly can affect the publics environment. Access to the decision-making processes wants to give the public a more active role. Once this form of access is attained, one can even speak of a certain form of power. One must not focus on only the opportunity to provide input on specific subjects, but also the ability to influence more general decisions, such as the making of new laws or national policies. Access to redress or change a certain decision is also related to a form of power, since the ability to change a certain decision gives a citizen the power to influence the decision-making process. This form of access can be translated into making judicial or administrative remedies accessible to the public, when officials fail to do their work in a proper manner (Mock et al., 2003). 2.3 Roles of facilitators The roles that a facilitator can play in group decision processes constitute of consistent packages of specific tasks within the group process combined with a more general attitude towards the group members and the process. In literature, three major roles of a facilitator are commonly distinguished: a role as process architect or process manager, a mediating role and a convening role. As a process architect, the facilitator lays down the backbone of the group process. The process should be structured in such a way that all relevant insights from the participants will play a role in the process. Four core principles for designing a group process can be discriminated: openness, protection of core values, speed and substance (De Bruijn et al., 2002). These four core elements of process design should be included and safeguarded in any process design in order to satisfy all the participants. The facilitator focuses on the process so that group members can focus on the substance and can suggest different ways of discussing problems, ensuring that all group members can freely express there comments and are free of any abuses of power or personal attack (Susskind et al., 1999). Especially in environmental issues, the interests, values and problem perceptions of different parties may often be far apart form each other. With such large contrasts of interest within the group, a facilitator often is faced with disputes and conflicts within the group process, that are hard to solve with mere changes in the structure of the process. In such case, the role of the facilitator can be very closely related with a mediating role in which the facilitator is mediating between parties, even to establish a general structure of the process. In addition, an external mediator can be asked to solve the conflicts. An external mediator is a neutral person that specializes in solving disputes between different participants in the group process, often using a variety of negotiation techniques and (psychological) methods of reframing problems and solutions (Acland, 1995). In a convening role, the facilitator has a say in which parties should be involved in the group process, and at what roles they will have. The convening role of a facilitator is sometimes not far apart from the role that a facilitator has as a process designer. Proper management of a group decisions process clearly has a very import influence on the effectiveness of that process. The facilitator can influence that process to quit a large extent. The consensus of all group members on the final decision depends for a large part on the level of agreement within the group with the approach that facilitators takes in structuring and managing the process. 2.4 Role of knowledge Knowledge is a crucial ingredient of interactive planning. However, the significance of the use of knowledge depends on ones view. Over the years, the view on the role of knowledge has changed. The rational actor model has gradually been replaced by adaptive decision and learning strategies interacting with the environment. Before, planning would be perceived as proceeding in an orderly and linear fashion (Friend Hickling, 2005). Today some authors state that knowledge is a result of collective social processes. This implies that knowledge is a social construct, rather than an objective entity. In the new approach, linear progression of the process is seen as unrealistic. Instead, the uniqueness, ambiguity and unpredictability of real world processes are emphasized. With the recognition that planning is an interactive and communicative process, the notion of the interrelationship between expert and experiential knowledge has become more and more crucial. Interactive planning is now seen as organized rituals where deliberating participants listen to one another, search for new options and learn to find new ways of going on together (Khakee et al., 2000). 3. Case description For a complete description of each of the two cases, see appendix 1 and 2. This section will only discuss the previously mentioned four critical issues related to interactive policy making (Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge), related to the experiences of these two cases. 3.1 Mainport Schiphol Schiphol Airport is situated in a highly urbanized area, and deals with national, continental and intercontinental air traffic. Although its presence is causing many stress on its environmental surroundings, the Dutch government wants it to expand, so it can act as a hub for continental and intercontinental air traffic. With this expansion there are two interests at stake: on national level an economic one (because an enlarged Schiphol would increase economic activities), and on regional level an environmental one (because a bigger Schiphol will cause an increase of nuisances of noise, pollution, and safety). These two opposite interests caused a stalemate to occur since the 1950s. In the 1980s, one of the government authorities took the initiative to change the common way of working and activated the policy network, to address the issues (Driessen, 1999). 3.1.1 Participant selection The most important actor in this case was the Dutch Government, who made the prefigured decision to expand the airport into an international hub. All other participants had to find their win-win outcomes within this context of developmental growth. From the beginning, various government organisations have been involved in the development of Schiphol Airport. The main players are three ministries. The ministry of Transport and Public Works is by far the most important actor, responsible for the economic development of the airport as well as the abatement of noise nuisance. Second, the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment is also involved, responsible for physical planning in The Netherlands and implementing policies regarding the rest of the environmental effects of the activities of the airline industries, namely air pollution, stench and hazard. Finally, the Ministry of Economic Affairs plays and important role, pursuing further economic development in the region o f Schiphol (Driessen, 1999). Lower tiers of governments involved were the province of North Holland, responsible for environmental policy and planning for the region, and the municipalities surrounding the airport, both benefiting (by increased employment and tax-incomes) and enduring the aggravation (caused by noise, stench, air pollution, and other activities that degrade the environment) of having the airport close by. The municipality of Haarlemmermeer is a special case, because this municipality is authorized to create a land use plan for the airfield. Additionally, two enterprises play a crucial role: NV Luchthaven Schiphol (operating the airport and completely state owned) and KLM (the major Dutch carrier and partly owned by the state) (Driessen, 1999). Because the Ministry of Transport and Public Works occupied a pivotal position, being both responsible for the economic development of Schiphol and the abatement of noise nuisance, it was agreed that noise regulation would be regulated by the Aviation Act, which was under the responsibility of the Ministry of Transport and Public Works. Nevertheless, little actions were made to reduce noise nuisance, because all participants believed that technical solutions would solve all noise-problems in the near future. Because no agreement could be made between these participants on how much the airport should be allowed to grow, or how to tackle the environmental problems, the Dutch government asked the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment to make an integral plan for the Schiphol region, ensuring both economic development as well as environmental improvements. In the following process, a project group and a steering committee were established. The steering committee was comp osed out of all above-mentioned parties, while the project group contained all interest groups. Any party with interest in the case could join the project group (Driessen, 1999). Based on the case-description and related to the four considerations described in section 2.1, it must be concluded that parties with blocking and productive power were strongly involved in the interactive planning process, by joining the steering committee. Other parties with interest were also involved, by joining the project group, but their influence was relatively small. If parties were involved, based on moral considerations, does not become clear from this case-description. 3.1.2 Power and access The three different Governmental agencies (the ministry of Transport and Public Works, the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment, and the Ministry of Economic Affairs) with jurisdictional authority over airport expansion, had accepted the mandate for airport expansion, but each with more at stake than achieving this outcome. Interagency rivalry and power played a critical part in the positions the ministries adopted and the coalitions they build during negotiations. The creation of a project group composed of all interest groups and of a steering committee of essential power brokers gave much power to the steering committee alone. From the case description, it does not become clear that the members of the steering committee, who were eventually excluded from the decision-making, were those who could not benefit in a win-win situation, or were simply not powerful enough to block or advance progress. Nevertheless, the exclusion of interests cannot lead to a win-win sol ution and has encountered difficulties building consensus and achieving compliance (Driessen, 1999). Based on the case-description and related to the three elements described in section 2.2, it must be concluded that Access to information does not form an obstacle. Perhaps the overload on information and the opposed and contradicting information gave bigger problems. The public was given some access to the decision-making process when they joint the project group, by commenting the ideas of the steering committee. However, the steering committee made all final decisions, so there was certainly no access to redress or change a decision. 3.1.3 Roles of facilitator After the developed deadlock between the initially participants, the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment was made primary responsible for the task of making an integral plan for the Schiphol region, ensuring both economic development as well as environmental improvements. The fact that this ministry had a strong affiliation with environmental issues raised initial suspicion among the other governmental bodies. They wondered whether this ministry would be able to take a neutral position in the ensuing discussions. However, their initial wariness soon gave way to a realistic attitude, and actively joined the process (Driessen, 1999). The Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment designed an organizational framework for the discussion whereby the coordinated approach would be given a concrete form by activating the policy network. With this, the ministry acquired a dual function in the project, because it was the convenor, chair and facilitator of the planning process, and had to secure the input of environmental interest in the decision-making (Driessen, 1999). In the initial stage, the strategy of the project leaders of the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment was to bring the various parties closer together by conducting investigations and exchanging information, assuming that this might contribute to a better understanding and more appreciation for each different standpoint. The was no need for a professional facilitator, because all information was being collected, analyzed, and disseminated in an orderly way, although a professional facilitator could have helped structuring the problem. At the end of this stage, the project leaders formulated a plan, which could not be released because of the rain of criticism it caused (Driessen, 1999). Because of this setback, the project leaders decided to recruit a professional facilitator, with the task not to increase the supply of information, but to let parties sought to digest what they had and to arrive at a decision. From the case-description, it does not become clear if this facilitator had staff support and whether he/she had analytical, problem solving skills. The approach taken by the facilitator was aimed at bringing the main bottlenecks to the fore, in order to reach agreements at least on key points. The approach was characterized by the creation of a strong interaction between the project group and the steering committee. The later reviewed the issues that the project group had pared down in size, and either approved the solutions offered by the project group or send them back to the project group for reconsideration (Driessen, 1999). After this process, the facilitator presented the choices made by the project group and the steering committee to the public. The central aim of this was, to gain social and political legitimacy; the plan was opened up to the public discussion and the reactions were taken into account in the final version. Unfortunately, the public was hardly informed about the process preceding the plan and therefore it was generally received with great suspicion. Adding to this, the public discussion did not proceeded in a coordinated fashion, but each government resorted to its own method of public discussion. At the same time of these public hearings, the facilitator had to focus on the steering committee, because each party could take criticism of the plan as a lever to reopen discussion on subjects already discussed. At the end, the facilitator wrote the final text of the plan, shaping the final agreements also including the difficult topics of a reduction of noise nuisance and hazard (Driessen , 1999). From this description of the facilitator, it becomes clear that the facilitator had both the role of process architect, and mediator. The facilitator designed the entire framework of decision-making and mediated when problems occurred. If the facilitator also had a convening role is unclear. Which stakeholders could join the steering committee was already decided before the facilitator got involved. How actually the project group was formed, stays unclear from this case-description. 3.1.4 Role of knowledge Especially in issues related to airfield, experts disagree on numerous crucial uncertainties. This makes the role of knowledge both important but not of the same tenor. Research plays a key role in these controversies. This relates to research on, for instance, the need to build a new airport or expand the existing one, it may concern the most desirable infrastructure in and around the airport, it may deal with the profitability of operation, it may investigate the economic impact of the airport, or it may consider possible negative effects on the environment. However, this research must never be judged as objective and will always play a role in the conflict of interest, expressed in this case, in the frequency of requested second opinions (Driessen, 1999). In the case of noise nuisance, it took long time to be acknowledged as a problem and to find a way of calculating the level of distress. In the mid-1960s, a system was developed to measure noise nuisance, but no agreement could be made on how it should be applied. For instance, there was discussion about how to determine the threshold value for maximum admissible noise nuisance. Furthermore, options differ on setting a specific norm for night flights. The disagreement revolves around the degree to which departing and arriving airplanes disturb the sleep of nearby residents, and whether such disruption is detrimental to public health. There was also uncertainty about, the rate air traffic would increase, and the degree to which technical developments in aeronautics could help reduce noise levels by changing the aircrafts design (Driessen, 1999). Therefore, as also stated in section 2.4, knowledge is very important in decision-making processes, but as these processes get more interaction with a broad scale of actors, knowledge becomes more a result of collective social processes and loses its objective entity. From this case-description, it does not become explicitly clear if the decisions were based on knowledge provided by experts or that it was formed in an interactive learning process. Implicitly, one could state that the agreement on noise nuisances could only have been established, when such interactive knowledge development occurred. 3.2 A12 national expressway The ease of accessibility of The Hague depends to a large extent on the A12 national expressway. Its final 30 km stretch is marked by many access and exit ramps, and the intensity of traffic in this area has increased dramatically in recent decades. This is partly thanks to the enormous increase in the volume of vehicular traffic, and partly to the proliferation of new urban development locations around The Hague. Much of the traffic is destination traffic which enters the city in the morning and leaves at night. As a result of the higher volumes, congestion became a big problem (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). 3.2.1 Participant selection The planning agency initially saw itself as the owner of the problem at stake and formulated a classical solution of road widening. This approach failed because of public resistance and of a budget problem at the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. Because of this, the ministry stepped back, which un-deliberately created opportunities for other parties to take initiative. The government authorities of The Hague took the initiative to develop a new architecture for interaction among the different stakeholders. They organized a public dialog and a series of workshops involving local politicians and private businesses from the region, resulting in a new definition of the problem, focussing on the underutilization of existing capacity. The role of the planning agency changed from orchestrator of the infrastructure project to a partner in the wider regional consultation on issues of mobility and livability. They also made subsidies available to the business community , enabling them to work out individual, sometimes innovative, mobility plans (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). Before concluding the analysis of participant selection in this case, the fact that there were no objections to the planes made by this interactive planning-process is probably the best evidence that all relevant stakeholders were included in the process. Nevertheless, from the case-description and related to the four considerations described in section 2.1, it does not become clear how all relevant stakeholders were defined, if all parties with blocking and productive power were added to the process, or if parties with moral and ethical considerations were included. 3.2.2 Power and access This case can bee described as a restricted interactive process, because it was intended to promote the cooperation of public authorities with the private sector. Civic organizations and individual citizens were kept informed through a public relations center. The governmental authorities of The Hague decided which stakeholders were included in the process. Despite this fact, no opposition to this project did arise (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). The access to information was well looked after, in the form of the public relations center. They kept civic organizations and individual citizens informed about the plans and progress. More power was not given to the public in this case. 3.2.3 Roles of facilitator In order to link the government agencies (where the plans were developed), and the business community, a godfather was appointed. This honour was given to the director of the public transport company in the region, and he served as a contact between the project and the private sector. He kept all relevant firms informed about the development of the project and called these firms to task with respect to their responsibilities for the regions accessibility, by reminding them that they might be lagging behind other firms in the development of their mobility plans (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). From the case-description, it must be concluded that the government authorities of The Hague acted as a convener, initially selecting the different stakeholders. Facilitating the process and mediating in conflicts were partly done by the godfather and partly by the government authorities of The Hague. The precise division of responsibilities does not become clear from the case-description. 3.2.4 Role of knowledge According to this case-description, it was the government agencies of The Hague who decided what knowledge was used in the decision process. The only organization consulted for information was the planning agency, also participating in the planning process (Glasbergen and Driessen, 2005). Although knowledge is crucial in interactive planning (see section 2.4), the role of knowledge in this case is not very big. This probably has two reasons. One is the relative simple problem at stake (congestion) and secondly the fact that all parties agreed on the content of the relevant knowledge. Nevertheless, the fact that only one party provided the relevant knowledge could potentially have caused major problems afterwards. 4. Conclusion This research started with the question: How do the four critical issues (Participant selection, Power and Access, Roles of facilitators, and Use of knowledge) contribute to the rate of success of 2 infrastructural cases in The Netherlands (the Schiphol case and the A12 national expressway)? How each criterion added to the success of the case is described at the end of each subsection in chapter 3. Overall, it can be concluded that the success of interactive planning depends on the care each criterion is taken care of. If one of these criteria is neglected, it will be reflected in the outcomes. If, for example, participants are forgotten, power is not distributed evenly, facilitators are not adequate, or knowledge is not as objective as possible, the process will take much longer time and the change of good end-results and thus consensus will diminish. Both cases make clear that solutions were impossible to reach in the traditional way of policy making and that interactive policy mak ing contributed to good end results. Nevertheless, in future comparable processes, more attention should be given to the four discussed critical issues, and probably to the seven mentioned in the introduction. Only than, the rate of success of these kind of processes will increase. References Acland, A.F. 1995. Resolving Disputes without going to Court. London, Century Business Books. Bruijn, H. de, E. ten Heuvelhof and R.J. in t Veld. 2002. Process management: Why Project Management Fails in Complex decision making Processes. Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Driessen, P. 1999. Activating a Policy Network; The Case of Mainport Schiphol. in Susskind et al., 1999, The Consensus Building Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Reaching Agreement. Enthoven, G.M.W. and A. de Rooij. 1996. InfraLab; Impuls voor open planvorming en creativiteit.Bestuurskunde, Vol. 5, Issue 8, p. 1-8. Friend, J. and A. Hickling. 2004. Planning Under Pressure, The Strategic Choice Approach. Oxford, Buttorworth/Heinemann. Glasbergen, P. and P.J. Driessen. 2005. Interactive planning of infrastructure: the changing role of Dutch project management. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, Vol. 23, p. 263-277. Khakee A., A. Barbanente and D. Borri. 2000. Expert and experimental knowledge in planning. The Journal of the Operational Research Society, Vol. 51, No. 7, p. 776-788. Mock, G.A., W. Vanasselt, and E. Petkova. 2003. Rights and reality: Monitoring the publics right to participate. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, Vol. 9, p. 4-13. Suzzkind, L.S., S. McKearan and J. Thomas-Larmer. 1999. The Consensus Building Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Reaching Agreement. London, SAGE Publications. Appendix 1 Case sheet Mainport Schiphol (Driessen, 1999) 1. Position Initiative: several governmental ministries Time period: 1980-present Level of used policy process: regional/national Phase in policy process: in process 2. Background This case is about plans to expand Amsterdams Schiphol Airport and the disputes related to it. Schiphol Airport is situated in a highly urbanized area, and deals with national, continental and intercontinental air traffic. Although its presence is causing many stress on its environmental surroundings, the Dutch government wants it to expand, so it can act as a hub for continental and intercontinental air traffic. With this expansion there are two interests at stake: on national level an economic one (because an enlarged Schiphol Airport would increase economic activities), and on regional level an environmental one (because a bigger Schiphol Airport will cause an increase of nuisances of noise, pollution, and safety). These two opposite interests caused a stalemate to occur since the 1950s. In the 1980s, one of the government authorities took the initiative to change the common way of working and activated the policy network, to address the issues in a coordinated fashion. Type of policy problem / issue: (No information available) 3. Plan of method and parties involved Plan of method and participation As soon as all parties agreed to participate to the project, a join statement of intent was drawn up in the form of a covenant specifying the aim op the project, the policy standpoints, the organizational structure, and the financing. After this, plans formulated in three stages were hammered out, were consensus had to be reached on: cognitive stage; directed toward gathering and exchanging information in order to make a better appreciation for each others standpoints. productive stage; directing towards decision making on the main points of discussion by an independent facilitator. His aim was, to bring the bottlenecks to the fore and to reach agreements on the key points. formalizing stage; concerning the final decision making and the creation of social and political legitimacy for the plan. The plan was opened up to the public discussion, and the reactions had to be taken into account in the final version. This final version had to be submitted for approval to Parliament, the provincial executive of North Holland, and the municipal councils of Amsterdam and Haarlemmermeer. Participation rules: who and why? The initial main players are three ministries: The Ministry of Transport and Public Works (by far the most important actor and responsible for airport planning, jurisdiction and abatement of noise nuisance), Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment (responsible for all other environmental effects besides noise nuisance (like air pollution, stench and hazard), and physical planning in The Netherlands), and the Ministry of Economic Affairs (pursuing further economic development in the region). Also the province of North Holland and the municipalities surrounding the airport, responsible for environmental policy planning in the region, are participants in this policy network. Finally, to enterprises are involved: NV Luchthaven Schiphol (Schiphol Airport, Inc.) and KLM. Adding to the complexity of the issue; the Dutch Government holds about 3/4 of the shares of the NV Luchthaven Schiphol and 1/3 of the shares of KLM. Thus the government has a large influence in both the com panies as well. In 1988, the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment became responsible for the future development of Schiphol Airport. It had to activate the policy network again, by setting up the project and managing it, and secure the input of environmental interests. The organization structure consisted of a project group (containing a broad base of parties with both economical and environmental interests) and a steering committee (Consiting of: The Ministry of Transport and Public Works, Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning, the Ministry of Economic Affairs, the province of North Holland, the municipalities of Amsterdam and Haarlemmermeer, NV Luchthaven Schiphol (Schiphol Airport, Inc.) and KLM. Method of alternative weighing (No information available) 4. Role of knowledge Relation to source of knowledge (No information available) Coping with uncertain and incomplete knowledge (No information available) 5. Results Evaluation available Up to 1988, it was not possible to reach consensus within this policy network on the future development of Schiphol. The lack of clarity about the following issues has been important: Uncertainty about the noise nuisance; if it had to be taken into account at all and how to measure it. There was also no clear way of dealing with the level of disturbance night flights caused. The technical possibilities to reduce noise, by changing the design of aircrafts. After the second attempt to solve the development problems around Schiphol Airport, the policy network agreed on a plan to a reduction of noise nuisance and hazard, setting an threshold for noise nuisance and on providing additional sound insulation for dwellings in the vicinity. With regard to the rest of the environmental effects (stench, safety, and air pollution), agreement was reached on the aims, while concrete measures were left to a later stage of plan elaboration. On the basis of this plan, the parties involved drafted a covenant, with the status of a statement of intent, containing the main agreements. Elements useful for weighing sustainable risks (environment, social, economy). (No information available) Appendix 2 Case sheet A12 national expressway (Glasbergen en Driessen, 2005) 1. Position Initiative: The government authorities of the metropolitan area of The Hague Time period: 1998-2005 Level of used policy process: Local Phase in policy process: Implementation (in 2005) 2. Background The ease of accessibility of The Hague depends to a large extent on the A12 national expressway. Its final 30 km stretch is marked by many access and exit ramps, and the intensity of traffic in this area has increased dramatically in recent decades. This is partly thanks to the enormous increase in the volume of vehicular traffic, and partly to the proliferation of new urban development locations around The Hague. Much of the traffic is destination traffic which enters the city in the morning and leaves at night. As a result of the higher volumes, congestion has become a big problem. Type of policy problem / issue: Public resistance against the proposed solution formulated by the planning agency and budget problems at the Ministry if Transport, Public Works and Water Management. 3. Plan of method and parties involved Plan of method and participation The government authorities of the metropolitan area of The Hague took the initiative and developed a new architecture for interaction among the parties. They organized a public dialog and a series of workshops involving local politicians and private businesses from the region. Participation rules: who and why? Local politicians and private businesses from the region, with a clear stake in the problem and its resolution. Method of alternative weighing (No information available) 4. Role of knowledge Relation to source of knowledge (No information available) Coping with uncertain and incomplete knowledge (No information available) 5. Results Evaluation available This project may be seen as a restricted interactive process, in the sense that it was intended to promote the cooperation of public authorities with the private sector. Civic organizations and individual citizens were kept informed through a public relations centre. Despite this limited inclusiveness, opposition to the project did not arise. The case also shows that it is easier to obtain public financing for innovative plans which enjoy broad support than for projects that replicate traditional solutions and are supported only by the planning agency. Because of the interactive approach, the stakeholders could jointly set priorities for the expenditure of public funds for infrastructure. The consultations among these parties resulted in a new definition of the problem one no longer focused on the problem of insufficient road capacity (which had resulted in the proposed solution of widening the road), but on the underutilization of existing capacity (which resulted in the proposal to improve utilization). Along the way, the scope of the problem had been broadened so that it now concerned more than the accommodation of automobile traffic, as it also covered alternatives for modal split: public transport, automobiles, and bicycles. This implied that attention was no longer exclusively focused on the road segment in question, but had shifted to embrace the traffic and mobility issues of the entire region. By redefining the problem, the debate on the classic dilemma asphalt or the environment- was sidetracked. Environmental organizations that had previously opposed the plans now supported the revised approach. Elements useful for weighing sustainable risks (environment, social, economy). (No information available)

Standardized Testing Has For So Long Been The Determinant

Standardized testing has for so long been the determinant of success and progress in many school systems around the world. Students get exposure to standardized tests at one point or the other, and the result from these tests are used to determine if a student can advance to a higher level or not (Moore, 2014). The school system in the United States has in place standardized tests for students who wish to join college and this need to be taken and passed for one to be sure of a college education. Even at lower levels of learning standardized tests remain to be the primary determinants of one’s performances, and in many instances, failure of standardized tests may be the reason why one is retained in the same class for a second consecutive†¦show more content†¦After every standardized test students often present report cards to their parents for them to check the progress of their children (Knoester, Au, 2017). It, therefore, helps the parents to identify whether thei r children are doing well and where adjustments need to be made. It also acts as a form of comparison for parents especially when comparing their child to other children in local schools and those at the national level. It also allows for comparison nationally for the schools. For example, in Texas, every public school is exposed to a similar standardized test (Knoester, Au, 2017). Such instances provide opportunities for students, teachers, and schools to be awarded at the national level by how they perform on such standardized tests. It also means that students from Dallas can be compared to their counterparts in Amarillo and check on the progress of the schools. Standardized testing ensures objectivity especially when teachers are awarding marks to the students. The tests often have a standardized scoring system which means that the issue of subjectivity is eliminated by the standardized system (Knoester, Au, 2017). Therefore, students will be awarded the grades they deserve and therefore understand where they are regarding performance. These tests will eliminate any form of bias that may occur especially when marking and awarding grades. It is evident that standardizedShow MoreRelated The Pass Fail System of Standardized Tests Essay1351 Words   |  6 PagesThe Pass Fail System of Standardized Tests Standardized tests have historically been used as measures of how students compare with each other or how much of a particular curriculum they have learned. Increasingly, standardized tests are being used to make major decisions about students, such as grade promotion or high school graduation, and schools. More and more often, they also are intended to shape the curriculum and instruction. 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In the economical way, China is making a great progress, but the poverty and unemployment still commonly exist in the country while the US does aRead More The Rorschach Inkblot Test Essay2377 Words   |  10 Pagesrevealing interpretations and used inkblots as projective surfaces, and later on in 1896 Alfred Binet who proposed the idea of using inkblots to asses personality functioning and other investigators supported his proposition, and so Whipple publis hed the first standardized inkblot set in 1910. Wayne Holtzman designed a similar inkblot test to correct the limitations of the Rorschach, and his technique includes 45 inkblots and demonstrates moderate inter-scorer reliability and predictive validity (KaplanRead More Racial and Cultural Test Bias, Stereotype Threat and Their Implications3799 Words   |  16 PagesTest Bias, Stereotype Threat and Their Implications A substantial amount of educational and psychological research has consistently demonstrated that African American students underperform academically relative to White students. For example, they tend to receive lower grades in school (e.g., Demo Parker, 1987; Simmons, Brown, Bush, Blyth, 1978), score lower on standardized tests of intellectual ability (e.g., Bachman, 1970; Herring, 1989; Reyes Stanic, 1988; Simmons et al., 1978), dropRead MoreWaiting Line Management7475 Words   |  30 Pageswere performed and the Baron and Kenny method used to test moderator and mediator impacts of variables. Findings – The results confirm that waiting time satisfaction is not only a service satisfaction determinant, but it also moderates the satisfaction-loyalty relationship. Moreover, determinants of customer waiting time satisfaction include the perceived waiting time, the satisfaction with information provided in case of delays, and the satisfaction with the waiting environment. In addition,

Impact of Evidence-Based Practice-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp.com

Question: How Does Evidence Based Practice Improve Patient Outcomes? Answer: Evidence Based Nursing Practice My position statement: Evidence based practice links research evidence with clinical expertise to support a patient centered care through the inclusion of preference of the patients. According to Fleiszer et al., 2016, Evidence based research may be defined as the explicit, judicious and conscientious use of the current evidences in taking decisions regarding the care of individual patients. The effect of the evidence based nursing has been felt in all the aspects of clinical practice. The concept of evidence based practice in nursing has gained momentum for the past few years. With the increasing demands of heath care over the world, the nurses now act in frontline with the doctors to give a patient centered care (Mitchell et al., 2015). In a simplified form it can be said that evidence based practice in nursing requires scientific reseaches, remaining updated with the current research techniques, efficient learning of the medical journals, application of the formal rules of the evidence, which can be useful in extending the conventional limits of the nurses (Hall Roussel, 2016). The steps in the evidence based nursing research includes- Assessing the patient, to determine the questions or the doubts that may arise from the case study of the patient, construction of a well built clinical question acquired from the case, conducting extensive research in relation to the case, Appraising the validity of the evidence found, Linking the evidence with the clinical practice and apply necessary interventions to the patient, obtained from the evidence based practice (Mitchell et al., 2015). EBP fills the gaps in patient care and brings about better outcomes in patients by collaborating clinical practice with research evidences. It supports the values of the patients to promote a better experience in patients. EBP assists the nurse to expand their horizon and modify patient care (Williams et al., 2015). According to Boltz et al., 2016, EBP involve better outcomes in patients, enhancing patient safety by providing a culturally safer background to the patient. In today's world patients are health care consumers and demand safer and skilled healthcare practice. The basis of EBP lies in research that would help in providing information regarding the treatment of the health care condition (Stevens, 2013). With the increasing demands of the health care needs, healthcare organizations are now involving the nurses in the decision making process, due to which a large portion of nurses are proceeding their higher education in nursing. Higher education related to nursing, requires lot researches. It should be noted, that incorporation of evidence based practice by the nurses is also required for the growth of the organization (Stevens, 2013). As the hospitals are asking the nurses to become more innovative and improve the operations related to healthcare (Williams et al., 2015). In addition to that, the nursing students pursuing masters or researches are provided with opportunities to continue their research based work under the aid of the organization. Practice of evidence based research work helps the nurses to step into leadership roles. EBP also helps the nurses to reach the underserved population and implement strategies to reach them. Nowadays advanced education is required to enhance the skills, incorporate information technology, and greater care coordination across the care continuum (Stevens, 2013). Throughout the 21st century the roles of the nurses have evolved drastically. The profession of nursing has become dynamic. They have to work in a variety of settings, which includes the hospitals, schools, businesses sector, and health department of the community, laboratory, home and health care. Each of these nurses has various responsibilities, but the primary concern of the nurses will remain the same (Stevens, 2013). There are misconceptions in the nursing students regarding the nursing researches and do not have the ideas how to proceed with the research. Evidence based practice demands changes in the nursing education to be more dynamic, such that there is a closer working relationship between the clinicians and the caregivers (Williams et al., 2015). EBP helps the nursing practice to become more focused, individualized, streamlined and also helps in increasing the active judgment capability. The other effects of the EBP are cost containment, increasing availability of information's and increasing customer savvy for the care and treatment options (Stevens, 2013). There are different NMBA standards proposed by the nursing midwifery practice of Australia, which aligns with the evidence based research practices. All the registered nurses have to maintain certain codes of conduct and certain codes of ethics in nursing practice (Williams et al., 2015). The purpose of this framework is to provide them with professional guidance and support on matters related to their clinical practice. This works as a framework to under pin the decision making in nurses (Stevens, 2013). It helps to understand the needs for professional development. It also promotes reflective practices to enhance self learning for providing a safer and quality care to the patient (Hall et al., 2016). The standards help the nurses to make decisions regarding their roles and responsibilities which is an empowering determinant for the practitioners. There are seven NMBA standards of nursing that is required to be followed by the registered nurses. Critical thinking and analysis in nursing practice is required by an RN to make the best possible use of the evidences available (Stevens, 2013). As a nurse it is required to practice a culturally safe nursing, with special reference to the aboriginal population of Australia. It is the duty of the nurses to meet up to the legislations, guidelines and the policies associated to the nursing standards. Ethical frame woks should be maintained while taking any decisions. Melnyk et al., (2014) has argued that ethical frame work in nursing refers to beneficence and non malefiecience, which cannot be always used for the sake of the patients health. Standard 2 refers to the engagement of the nurse in therapeutic relationship with the patient. Nurse can use the concept of EBP in providing a collaborative care to the patient. As per the conditions of the evidence based practice, it is necessary to advocate confidentiality of the patients condition. A nurse should be able to maintain the patients dignity (LoBiondo-Wood Haber, 2017). Evidence based practice involves professional development, which again aligns with the NMBA standard 3. EBP requires conduction of patient's assessment that is holistic and culturally safe to the patient, which is same as the standard 4 of NMBA. The standard 5 of the NMBA framework refers to the use of the assessment data to develop a plan for the patient. Harvey Kitson (2015) have argued that planning is always not possible due to the resistances from the nurse managers and the doctor in charge. The standard 6 of the NMBA framework encourages the nurse to provide a timely and safe nursing care to the patient (Masters, 2015). It is the duty of a nurse to point out the potential risks and flaws related to the system. It often becomes very difficult to point out the flaws being in the same system. Thus, from this perspective it often becomes very difficult in implementing evidence based practice (Ossenberg et al., 2016). The standard 7 of the NMBA framework, it is the duty of a nurse to measure the progress and the deterioration in a clinical setting to proceed more towards the expected goals. Ackley et al (2016) has argued that it is not possible to implement evidence based practice in all the aspects of healthcare without a proper training. Researchers have shown that only 34.5% of the nurses in a clinical setting use EBP in their nursing practice (Stevens, 2013). Majority of the nurses feel that it is required to have enhanced knowledge and skills in EBP, which is due the lack of proper educational scopes. According to Levin Feldman (2012), the two most important factors that can act as barriers to evidence based practice are organizational support and time. Sometimes it becomes very difficult to incorporate any change in the old setting and getting past the workplace resistance as that is the way the nurses have been doing so far. In most of the cases the nurse students gets resistance from the nurse leaders and the nurse managers (Melnyk et al., 2014). Furthermore, it cannot be expected that nurse would sit and look after articles instead of taking care of the patien ts. Even if they are self motivated to the necessary researches, time will not allow them to do that. Education is the biggest barrier as people educated many years ago have no idea about the EBP approach of care. While many organization are supporting the EBP method of practice, there are few that still that follows the conventional methods of nursing (Masters, 2015). Some of the organizations who are in support of the evidence based practice needs to understand that a one or two days workshops will not be able to bring about any sustainable change in clinical settings (Melnyk et al., 2014). In order to make things feasible it is necessary to appoint enough EBP mentors, who will be able to work beside the clinicians to have in-hand experiences. Another important factor may act as a barrier to the EBP implementation is the limited access to information technologies and computer systems (Melnyk et al., 2014). It cannot be expected from the nurse to perform EBP without proper availability of the IT resources, as it is required to remain updated regarding the various scientific journals and articles. (Flodgren et al., 2014) have argued that there are lots of loops and holes to jump through for making a thing implemented in a clinical setting. According to author Brownson et al., 2017, many nurse practitioners have felt that the patients have often refused the new evidence based treatment plans and wanted to stick to the old methods. In case of older or mental patient, it becomes very difficult to get them convinced regarding the change (Melnyk et al., 2014). It is evident that EBP can lessen the burden on the doctors and reduce their invested time over individual patients. However, Jacob et al., 2012, have argued that there are certain doctors who feel that their treatment methods are evidence based, even if they are outdated. Hence that becomes a challenge for practicing EBP. Hence it can be rightly said that it is not feasible to expect the registered nurses to implement evidence based practice in all aspects of clinical setting. Lot of researches is yet to be done and awareness regarding EBP is still needed to be disseminated to make it successful throughout the clinical setting. References Ackley, B. J., Ladwig, G. B., Makic, M. B. F. (2016).Nursing Diagnosis Handbook-E-Book: An Evidence-Based Guide to Planning Care. Elsevier Health Sciences. Boltz, M., Capezuti, E., Fulmer, T. T., Zwicker, D. (Eds.). (2016).Evidence-based geriatric nursing protocols for best practice. Springer Publishing Company. Brownson, R. C., Baker, E. A., Deshpande, A. D., Gillespie, K. N. (2017).Evidence-based public health. Oxford University Press. Fleiszer, A. R., Semenic, S. E., Ritchie, J. A., Richer, M. C., Denis, J. L. (2016). Nursing unit leaders' influence on the long?term sustainability of evidence?based practice improvements.Journal of nursing management,24(3), 309-318. Flodgren, G., Rojas?Reyes, M. X., Cole, N., Foxcroft, D. R. (2012). Effectiveness of organisational infrastructures to promote evidence?based nursing practice.The Cochrane Library. Hall, H. R., Roussel, L. A. (2016).Evidence-based practice. Jones Bartlett Publishers. Harvey, G., Kitson, A. (2015).Implementing evidence-based practice in healthcare: a facilitation guide. Routledge. Jacobs, J. A., Jones, E., Gabella, B. A., Spring, B., Brownson, R. C. (2012). Peer reviewed: tools for implementing an evidence-based approach in public health practice.Preventing chronic disease,9. Levin, R. F., Feldman, H. R. (2012).Teaching evidence-based practice in nursing. Springer Publishing Company. LoBiondo-Wood, G., Haber, J. (2017).Nursing Research-E-Book: Methods and Critical Appraisal for Evidence-Based Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. Masters, K. (2015).Role development in professional nursing practice. Jones Bartlett Publishers. Melnyk, B. M., Gallagher?Ford, L., Long, L. E., Fineout?Overholt, E. (2014). The establishment of evidence?based practice competencies for practicing registered nurses and advanced practice nurses in real?world clinical settings: proficiencies to improve healthcare quality, reliability, patient outcomes, and costs.Worldviews on Evidence?Based Nursing,11(1), 5-15. Mitchell, M. L., Henderson, A., Jeffrey, C., Nulty, D., Groves, M., Kelly, M., ... Glover, P. (2015). Application of best practice guidelines for OSCEsAn Australian evaluation of their feasibility and value.Nurse education today,35(5), 700-705. Ossenberg, C., Henderson, A., Dalton, M. (2015). Determining attainment of nursing standards: The use of behavioural cues to enhance clarity and transparency in student clinical assessment.Nurse education today,35(1), 12-15. Stevens, K. R. (2013). The impact of evidence-based practice in nursing and the next big ideas.Online Journal of Issues in Nursing,18(2), 4-4. Williams, B., Perillo, S., Brown, T. (2015). What are the factors of organisational culture in health care settings that act as barriers to the implementation of evidence-based practice? A scoping review.Nurse education today,35(2), e34-e41

The Impressions of Emirati Youths on ISIS

Introduction Research background The ISIS crisis is in its fourth year despite several efforts by the international community for reconciliation. It is necessary to establish the impression of the Emirati youths on the ISIS, since they are indirectly affected by the current military activities of the group in Syria and Iraq (Al-Jenabi, 2008, p. 15).Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on The Impressions of Emirati Youths on ISIS specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Therefore, this research proposal will attempt to establish the impressions of the Emirati youths on Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS). Research question and objectives For this research proposal, the primary question is; What are the impressions of the Emirati youths on Islamic State in Iraq and Syria? The objectives of this research are; To establish the perceptions of the Emirati youths on the ISIS group To make recommendations and suggestions on ho w to view and deal with ISIS Importance of studying the topic Understanding geo-political, social, and economic impressions held by the Emirati youths towards ISIS are important, especially when establishing the contribution of the group on the current Middle East conflict. Through sociological imagination, it is easy to understand behavior change and identify forces: positive or negative, that facilitate the angle of inclination among the Emirati youths towards the ISIS. Methodology Nature of the method This research will be conducted using research survey study approach. Data, which will be collected through one-on-one interviews and questionnaires, will be scrutinized in detail. Through open-ended and closed-ended structure, each question asked will be comprehensive to ensure that respondents have opportunity to give deep answers that provide an insight into research problem solution. Instances of divergent or convergent opinions by one or more respondents will be marked appropr iately (George Bennet, 2005, p. 29).Advertising Looking for proposal on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Strengths and weaknesses Questionnaire Based on the survey method, a self constructed five-item structured questionnaire will become imperative. The questionnaire will be prepared to use 5- point Likert scale (Miller, Mauthner, Birch, Jessop, 2012, p. 42). The Saudi youths will express a broad range of opinions in the focus groups on the key issues in the discussion. Strengths Questionnaire provides anonymity to the user and thus gives more honest responses. Information can be gathered from a large number of people. Since the questions are uniform and if the conditions under which they are answered are controlled, then the information gathered is standardized (Miller et al. 2012, p. 43). Weaknesses It is not possible to explain to the respondents any point that they may misinterpret in a question. Giving a pilot test to a few respondents could partially solve this. It is possible for a respondent to be dishonest in case they do not feel comfortable (De-Rada, 2005, p. 66). To minimize any of the on the above weakness, the questionnaire design will use a simple language that is understood by both parties. The time for completion will be reasonable and designed to identify the target population so as to yield useful data for the research analysis and interpretation (Groves, Fowler, Coper, Lepkowski, Singer, Tourangeau, 2009, p. 45). Interviews Adopting semi-structured, open-ended and closed-ended questions interview, data collection through a one-on-one interview is critical considering the scope of the research topic. Strengths The choice of one-on-one interview is based on the rationale of gaining insight on the feelings, opinion, and experiences. Moreover, the semi structured interviews are given room for further probe depending. The researcher is in a position to seek further clarificati on on specific ideas and responses given within the interview time. From responses gathered, one-on-one interview makes it easy to scribe clear responses that answer the questions asked (De-Rada, 2005, p. 68). Weaknesses The interview is tedious and time consuming. Interview findings may be biased if the interviewer and the interviewee do not read from the same page. The interview is expensive when the sample space is large (De-Rada, 2005, p. 69). Since the researcher is expected to accord the research project professional seriousness, the willing respondents are likely to reliable, credible, and informed responses to questions asked. Appropriateness of using the method for study The mixture of questionnaire and direct interview will present a number of pre-specified competencies and best practices based on the research topic. The researcher chose the qualitative because the scope of the research is focused, subjective, dynamic, and discovery oriented. Moreover, this approach will c reate room for further analysis using different and divergent tools for checking the degree of error and assumption limits (Groves et al. 2009, p. 57).Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on The Impressions of Emirati Youths on ISIS specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Data collection and stages of research This research will target 100 Emirati youths (within the age group of 20-30 years) to establish the common perception towards ISIS. The sampling criterion that will be used in the initial sampling plan represents the true picture of the activities on the ground. The collected quantitative data will be coded and passed through appropriate analysis tool. In the process, cross tabulation will be used to compare and contrast the impressions held by the Emirati youths. In order to quantify the relationship between the independent and dependent variable, analysis will be essential besides figures, charts, and tabular repre sentation of correlation analysis (De-Rada, 2005, p. 65). Validity, reliability, and generalization of results This sample chosen for the survey presents a clear, scientific, and verifiable criterion for systematic analysis. Reflectively, this will permit comparative research especially when qualitative design is adopted to give room for testing accuracy and degree of biasness (Groves et al. 2009, p. 39). The interviews will be conducted by the researcher because of common characteristics of culture, age, and country (George Bennet, 2005, p. 33). The researcher will send the questionnaires to the targeted participants and schedule direct interview with those who are flexible and can afford a fifteen minutes break to answer the interview questions. Ethical considerations During the data collection phase of this study, the researcher will strive to uphold ethics appertaining to scientific research. This will be pursued through inclusion of an informed consent form in the interview an d questionnaire, which the units being studied will be required to read understand and consent to before the study commences. The researcher will ensure confidentiality of the subjects by insisting on their anonymity, where each subject will be identified using a unique code as opposed to use of names (Blaxter, Hughes, Malcolm, 2005, p. 44). Conclusion The study will be carried out via research survey since the scope of the research is focused. Through qualitative research, the research will be in a position to carry out correlation analysis of the impressions held by the Emirati youths. The study would be more comprehensive if the impressions were directed towards a single variable.Advertising Looking for proposal on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More References Al-Jenabi, B. (2008). Use of social media in the United Arabs Emirates: An initial study. Global Media Journal, 1(2), 3-27. Blaxter, L., Hughes, C., Malcolm, T. (2005). How to research, Berkshire, UK: Open University Press. De-Rada, V. (2005). Influences of questionnaire design on response to mail surveys. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8(1), 61-78. George, A., Bennet, A. (2005). Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences: How to Do Case Studies. Massachusetts, Ma: MIT Press. Groves, M., Fowler, J., Coper, P., Lepkowski, M., Singer, E., Tourangeau, R. (2009). Survey Methodology. New York, NY: John Wiley Sons. Miller, T., Mauthner, M., Birch, M., Jessop, J. (2012). Ethics in qualitative research. London, UK: SAGE Publications Limited. 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